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Improving Liveness and Reliability in the Interchain Stack
October 11, 2024
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Liveness is a crucial concept in the Interchain Stack and distributed systems in general as it affects operational reliability, scalability, and performance. Liveness enables all nodes to communicate effectively and consistently, reducing downtime, detecting failures, and improving overall system performance. Due to the importance of liveness, developers working with the Interchain Stack often make assumptions about its liveness guarantees. However, due to the inherent challenges of decentralized blockchain development, the stack components do not provide distributed performance guarantees today. Let’s explore these challenges, the concepts of liveness and safety in the Interchain Stack, and any liveness misconceptions for the benefit of builders and the sustainable growth of the ecosystem.

Safety Over Liveness — A Core Design Principle

Liveness in the Interchain Stack — comprising Cosmos SDKCometBFTCosmWasmCosmJS, and IBC — is the property that enables the system’s continuous operation and availability, ensuring all nodes can communicate with each other effectively and consistently. While liveness is important in distributed systems where various nodes work together to maintain the integrity and functionality of the network, the concept of safety over liveness remains a core design principle of the Interchain Stack and most Layer One blockchain technologies in use today.

The Interchain Stack’s robust architecture and performant track record can lead to misconceptions about liveness and the distributed performance guarantees the Stack provides. This can result in potentially unreliable and unsafe applications. Prioritizing safety over liveness is essential for the overall health and security of the Interchain Stack, enabling it to provide a reliable and scalable foundation for building innovative blockchain applications and securing billions of dollars of digital assets.

Challenges with Liveness and the Interchain Stack

Decentralization relies on multiple parties to perform compute, transmission, and storage of chain data while reaching a unified consensus to produce blocks. This introduces unknown environmental and runtime factors over which the Stack has no control, making it challenging to provide performance guarantees at the protocol level. Given the complexities of building distributed systems, promising such liveness guarantees would be irresponsible and the stack has never made such claims.

When working with the Interchain Stack, developers must not make liveness assumptions and should design their applications accordingly, specifically:

  • Developers should not assume consistent block throughput or timely events. Variability and potential delays of unknown frequency and duration may occur. This should be accounted for during application design.
  • Developers should not rely on a chain’s past performance to remain at the same level in the future. They should account for possible changes when designing their systems to ensure stability and reliability.
  • Development teams should implement mechanisms that manage timeouts, delays, and retries to guarantee applications remain functional under varying network conditions.
  • They should consider resource constraints and optimize the use of compute resources, storage, and bandwidth during implementation. This will help create more efficient and reliable applications.

Strategies to Mitigate Liveness Issues

As the interchain evolves and more use cases and needs emerge, the Interchain Stack steward teams are examining strategies to mitigate liveness issues at the protocol level and exploring opportunities to enhance the system’s components to optimize performance. Here are some examples below:

CometBFT

CometBFT, the consensus engine designed for the interchain and beyond, provides several strategies to address liveness issues caused by spam or traffic surges. These mitigations help maintain network performance and block production times. One such strategy involves reducing the default BlockParams.MaxBytes from 21 MB to 4 MB, limiting block sizes and reducing the impact of spammy transactions.

CometBFT also incorporates several other measures to enhance its resilience and predictability in the face of transaction surges and improve the reliability of CometBFT-based networks. These include:

  • Adjusting timeout parameters for proposing larger blocks
  • Maintaining consistent node configurations across the network
  • Avoiding large mempools that can negatively impact performance
  • Delegating mempool responsibility to the application layer through an optional “nop” feature
  • Implementing a backpressure mechanism to manage transaction flow
  • Supporting async mempool updates from block.Commit

Future Improvements in CometBFT

The CometBFT team is working on further improvements to mitigate liveness issues caused by spam surges and overloaded mempools. One of these improvements introduces Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees for the mempool protocol. This design aims to prevent the pressure from spreading to other components within CometBFT by adding mechanisms that allow nodes to drop some transactions in certain circumstances. The QoS approach is known as “mempool lanes,” where transactions with higher priority will have stronger guarantees and better predictability in terms of propagation and inclusion in a block.

Another important feature is the Dynamic Optimal Graph (DOG) gossip protocol for the mempool, which is designed to improve transaction dissemination efficiency and reduce duplicate transactions. This algorithm extends the base FLOOD protocol by eliminating cycles in transaction dissemination, resulting in reduced bandwidth usage and better performance under high-traffic conditions. The CometBFT team has observed a 75% reduction in transaction dissemination bandwidth in initial testing.

Both the above features will be incorporated in v1 and may be backported to v0.37 and v0.38. Developers using older versions of CometBFT should plan their transition to v0.38 and then to v1, as the upgrade process can be difficult. The team is available for support and to contribute to network upgrades and spam issue mitigation, and can be reached on their Telegram and Discord. Additional resources can be found at the end of this post.

Hermes IBC Relayer

Hermes, an open-source relayer built in Rust, is a key component in ensuring liveness within the interchain ecosystem by relaying IBC datagrams between chains. This relayer scans chain states, builds transactions, and submits them to the involved chains, enabling smooth communication across the network.

To mitigate liveness issues, Hermes incorporates several strategies to manage network traffic and avoid overloading. For instance, it sets maximum size limits for the memo and receiver fields in ICS20 packets, rejecting packets that exceed the configured sizes, with defaults of 32KiB for memos and 2KiB for receivers. Additionally, Hermes allows operators to specify packet sequences that should not be cleared, preventing the relayer from processing problematic transactions and improving efficiency. Furthermore, Hermes provides options for selectively clearing packets via a command-line interface (CLI), giving operators more control over transaction flow.

These measures, along with robust logging and debugging, enhance Hermes’ ability to maintain reliable IBC communications and support the scalability of the Interchain Stack.

CosmJS

CosmJS, a client-side library for interacting with the blockchain, contributes indirectly to maintaining liveness in the ecosystem through its integration with other tools like Chain Registry and Cosmos Kit. These tools are crucial in ensuring live nodes are always available for interactions.

The Chain Registry maintains an up-to-date list of public endpoints for various blockchain nodes, providing redundancy if one node goes down. Similarly, Cosmos Kit leverages this registry to cycle through different RPC endpoints if a node failure occurs. This ensures that applications built with CosmJS can continue functioning even if a node fails by automatically finding and connecting to another live node.

While CosmJS does not directly address backend liveness guarantees, it plays an essential role in the broader context by ensuring robust client-side interactions. Good error handling practices in CosmJS can mitigate the impact of liveness issues, such as implementing retry mechanisms and user-friendly error messages to improve the overall user experience. By maintaining a smooth and reliable client-side interface, CosmJS indirectly supports the liveness and usability of applications built with the Interchain Stack.

 

Final Thoughts

To maintain liveness guarantees and support the sustainable growth of the ecosystem, developers must understand the challenges of distributed systems and design their applications accordingly, working together, and following the recommendations specified above. The Interchain Stack steward teams continue to explore opportunities to enhance system components, mitigate liveness issues, and optimize performance — and they need your help.

Community feedback can shape the development of the Interchain Stack and contribute to building a more reliable and scalable foundation for life-changing software and a brighter future for the humans who use it. Join our Discord channel and follow us on X to stay updated on the latest developments, ask questions, and share your thoughts with the community. Let’s craft the future of the interchain together.

 

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Inside The Deal That Made Polymarket’s Founder One Of The Youngest Billionaires On Earth🌍

One year ago, the FBI raided Polymarket founder Shayne Coplan’s apartment. Now, the college dropout is a billionaire at age 27.

In July, Jeffrey Sprecher, the 70-year-old billionaire CEO of Intercontinental Exchange, the parent company of the New York Stock Exchange, sat at Manhatta, an upscale restaurant in the financial district overlooking the sprawling New York City skyline from the 60th floor. As a sommelier weaved through tables pouring wine, in walked Shayne Coplan—in a T-shirt and jeans, clutching a plastic water bottle and a paper bag with a bagel he’d picked up en route. Sprecher chuckles as he recalls his first impression of the boyish, eccentric entrepreneur: “An old bald guy that works at the New York Stock Exchange, where we require that you wear a suit and tie, next to a mop-headed guy in a T-shirt that's 27.” But Sprecher was fascinated by Polymarket, Coplan’s blockchain-based prediction market, and after dinner, he made his move: “I asked Shayne if he would consider selling us his company.”

Prediction markets like Polymarket let thousands of ordinary people bet on future events—the unemployment rate, say, or when BitCoin will hit an all-time high. In aggregate, prediction market bets have proven to be something of a crystal ball with the wisdom of the crowd often proving itself more prescient than expert opinion. For instance, Polymarket punters predicted that Trump would prevail in the 2024 presidential election, when many national pundits were sure that Kamala Harris would win.

Coplan initially turned down Sprecher’s buyout offer. But discussions led to negotiations and eventually a deal. In October, Intercontinental announced it had invested $2 billion for an up to 25% stake in the company, bringing the young solo founder the balance he was looking for. “We're consumer, we’re viral, we're culture. They’re finance, they’re headless and they’re infrastructure,” Coplan tells Forbes in a recent interview.

At the same time, Coplan announced investments from other billionaires including Figma’s Dylan Field, Zynga’s Mark Pincus, Uber’s Travis Kalanick and hedge fund manager Glenn Dubin. A longtime Red Hot Chili Peppers fan, Coplan even convinced lead singer Anthony Kiedis to invest after a mutual acquaintance brought the musician to Coplan’s apartment one day. “He's buzzing my door, and I’m like, ‘holy shit,'” Coplan recalls, his bright blue eyes widening. “I love their music. A lot of the inspiration [for my work] comes from the music that I listen to.”

Thanks to the deals, Polymarket’s valuation quickly shot to $9 billion, making the 2025 Under 30 alum the world’s youngest self-made billionaire, with an estimated 11% stake worth $1 billion. His reign was short: twenty days later, he was overtaken as the youngest by the three 22-year-old founders of AI startup Mercor.

Young entrepreneurs are minting ten-figure fortunes faster than ever. In addition to the Mercor trio and Coplan, 15 other Under 30 alumni—including ScaleAI cofounder Lucy Guo, Reddit’s Steve Huffman and Cursor’s cofounders—became billionaires this year, while Guo’s cofounder Alexandr Wang and Robinhood’s Vlad Tenev (both former Under 30 honorees) regained their billionaire status after having fallen out of the ranks.

The budding billionaire has long been fascinated by markets and tech. When he was just 14, Coplan emailed the regional Securities and Exchange Commission office to ask how to create new marketplaces. “I did not get a response, but it’s a really funny email,” he says, grinning playfully as he thinks of his younger self. “It just shows that this stuff takes over a decade of percolating in your mind.”

Two years later, Coplan showed up at the offices of internet startup Genius uninvited after multiple emails of his asking for an internship went ignored. At age 16—at least a decade younger than anyone in that office—he secured his first job after making a memorable impression with his “wild curls” and “encyclopedic knowledge of billionaire tech entrepreneurs.” “If he chooses to become a tech entrepreneur, which seems likely, I have no doubt that we’ll be seeing his name again in the press before long,” Chris Glazek, his manager at the time, wrote in Coplan’s college recommendation letter.

Coplan went on to study computer science at NYU, but dropped out in 2017 to work on various crypto projects that never took off. In 2020, he founded Polymarket to create a solution to the “rampant misinformation” he saw in the world: The company’s first market allowed users to bet on when New York City would reopen amid the pandemic. He soon expanded into elections and pop culture happenings, among other events.

But it didn’t take long for the company to butt heads with regulators. In January 2022, Polymarket paid a $1.4 million fine to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission for offering unregistered markets. It was also ordered to block all U.S. users, but activity on Polymarket skyrocketed particularly during the 2024 U.S. presidential election, with bets totaling $3.6 billion. A week after the election, the FBI raided Coplan's apartment and seized his devices as part of an investigation into a possible violation of this agreement. Shortly after, Coplan posted on his X account that he saw the raid as “a last-ditch effort” from the Biden administration “to go after companies they deem to be associated with political opponents.”

In July, the Department of Justice and CFTC dropped the investigations—after which Sprecher reached out to Coplan for dinner—and less than a week later, Polymarket announced it had acquired CFTC-licensed derivatives exchange QCX to prepare for a compliant U.S. launch. QCX applied to be a federally-registered exchange in 2022—an application that was left dormant for three years before receiving approval less than two weeks before the acquisition was announced. When asked about the timing of the deal, Coplan points to CFTC acting chairwoman Caroline Pham, who President Trump tapped to lead the agency in January. “Caroline deserves a lot of credit for getting every single license that had been paused for no reason approved, as acting chairwoman in less than a year,” he says. Coplan had realized an acquisition might be the only way for Polymarket to legally operate in the U.S. as early as 2021 due to the lengthy federal approval process, a source familiar with the deal told Forbes.

Just two months after the acquisition and days after Donald Trump Jr. joined Polymarket’s advisory board, the company received federal approval to launch in the U.S. (Trump Jr. has also served as a strategic advisor to Polymarket’s main competitor Kalshi since January.)

Polymarket’s rapid rise has drawn critics. Dennis Kelleher, co-founder and CEO of Washington-based financial advocacy group Better Markets, told Forbes in an email that the current administration’s deregulation around prediction markets has unlocked a regulatory “loophole” to enable “unregulated gambling” under the CFTC, “which has zero expertise, capacity or resources to regulate and police these markets.” Kelleher added that with backing from the Trump family “who are directly trying to profit on this new gambling den… the massive deregulation and crypto hysteria will almost certainly end badly for the American people.”

Investors and businesses are scrambling to seize the moment of deregulation. “We had opportunities to invest in events markets earlier, but there was a lot of risk,” Sprecher says, listing the regulatory changes in favor of crypto and prediction markets under the current administration. “This was the moment to invest if we wanted to still be early in the space.”

In the last few months, Trump’s Truth Social and sportsbook FanDuel, as well as cryptocurrency exchanges Crypto.com, Coinbase and Gemini all announced their own plans to offer prediction markets. Robinhood CEO Vlad Tenev said prediction markets, which were integrated into its platform in March, were helping drive record activity for the retail brokerage in its third quarter earnings call.

“People are starting to realize right now that the opportunities are endless,” says Dubin, the billionaire hedge fund veteran who invested in Polymarket earlier this year. He points to sports betting companies, which have been regulated by states as gambling activity and taxed accordingly. States like New York can tax up to 51% of sportsbooks’ revenue, but federally-regulated prediction markets can bypass state laws, avoiding taxes and operating in all 50 states. With the realization that prediction markets could upend the sports betting industry—which brought in $13.7 billion in revenue in 2024—businesses are quickly jumping on board despite pushback from state gambling regulators. In October, both Polymarket and Kalshi secured partnerships with sportsbook PrizePicks and the National Hockey League, and Polymarket announced exclusive partnerships with sportsbook DraftKings and the Ultimate Fighting Championship.

The disruption won’t be limited to sports betting. Alongside its investment, Intercontinental’s tens of thousands of institutional clients including large hedge funds and over 750 third-party providers of data will soon have access to Polymarket data, as it gets integrated into Intercontinental’s products such as indices to better inform investment decisions. It also hopes to work with Polymarket to work on initiatives around tokenization—or converting financial assets into digital tokens on blockchain technology—to allow traders on Intercontinental’s exchanges to trade more flexibly at all hours of the day, Sprecher says. What’s more, in November, Google Finance announced it would integrate Polymarket and Kalshi data into its search results, while Yahoo Finance also announced an exclusive partnership with Polymarket.

Despite flashy investors, partnerships and a record $2.4 billion of trading volume in November, Polymarket has yet to launch in the U.S. or turn a profit. Coplan and his investors have hinted at ways the company could make money one day—selling its data, charging fees to users, launching a cryptocurrency token (similar to Ethereum or Bitcoin)—but decline to confirm any specifics. For now, the only thing that’s certain is the bet Coplan is making on himself. “Going for it and having it not pan out is an infinitely better outcome than living your life as a what if,” he says.

Standing across from the New York Stock Exchange building, Coplan tilts his head up as he watches a massive banner with Polymarket’s logo get hoisted onto the exterior of the building. It’s been five years since founding. One year since the FBI raid. He’s taking it all in. “Against all odds,” the bright blue banner reads, rippling in the wind alongside three American flags protruding from the building.

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Epstein-Linked Emails Expose Funding Ties to Bitcoin Core Development — Here Is What the Documents Reveal
  • Newly released emails show Jeffrey Epstein helped fund MIT’s Digital Currency Initiative, which supported Bitcoin Core development.
  • The documents also confirm that Leon Black donated to MIT’s Media Lab through Epstein-directed channels.
  • The revelations reshape part of Bitcoin’s early institutional funding history and highlight long-hidden influence from controversial donors.

Newly unsealed emails from the House Oversight Committee have shed fresh light on Jeffrey Epstein’s hidden financial influence inside MIT’s Media Lab — and more importantly, how some of that money flowed into Bitcoin Core development. The correspondence reveals that Joichi Ito, then-director of the MIT Media Lab, relied on Epstein-connected “gift funds” to rapidly launch the Digital Currency Initiative (DCI) in 2015, the research hub that became one of the primary sources of funding for Bitcoin’s core developers.

Emails Show Epstein-Connected Money Helped Launch MIT’s Digital Currency Initiative

In the newly surfaced emails, Ito directly thanked Epstein for the financial help that allowed MIT to “move quickly and win this round,” referring to the formation of DCI — a program explicitly designed to provide long-term support for Bitcoin Core contributors after the collapse of the Bitcoin Foundation. Ito’s forwarded message to Epstein described how the foundation’s implosion left core developers without stable funding, creating an opening for MIT to bring them under its umbrella.

He explained that three major developers — including Wladimir van der Laan and Cory Fields — agreed to join MIT, calling it “a big win for us.” The email also highlighted early support from prominent academics, including cryptographer Ron Rivest and IMF economist Simon Johnson. Epstein simply replied: “gavin is clever.”

Funding Numbers Reveal a Much Larger Financial Trail

MIT publicly claimed that Epstein donated $850,000 to the institution, with $525,000 flowing to the Media Lab. But journalist Ronan Farrow later reported the true figure was closer to $7.5 million — including a $5 million anonymous donation connected to Epstein associate Leon Black. The new emails appear to confirm that Black not only donated, but did so through Epstein’s direction.

One email from Ito to Epstein reads: “We were able to keep the Leon Black money, but the $25K from your foundation is getting bounced by MIT back to ASU.”

 

Epstein responded: “No problem — trying to get more black for you.”

The documents reveal Epstein’s influence reached deeper into Bitcoin circles than previously acknowledged, even including early conversations with Brock Pierce — another figure with documented ties to both Epstein and controversy surrounding early crypto foundations.

MIT’s Internal Concerns and the Fallout

The emails also expose MIT’s internal unease around anonymous or reputationally risky donations. After the scandal broke, Ito resigned in 2019. MIT later tightened donation policies, warning that “everything becomes public” eventually — a statement that now seems prophetic given this week’s disclosures.

Developers like Wladimir van der Laan say they were unaware of the extent of Epstein’s involvement and noted that DCI’s funding transparency “was not great back in the day.” The Media Lab and DCI declined to comment.

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