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The Investors Guide To Navigating Impermanent Loss

(DINARIAN NOTE: This is an important one to know)

Impermanent loss is the opportunity cost a liquidity provider faces when the net price difference between assets changes from the time they were first deposited. It is considered impermanent because liquidity providers can recover their loss if the token pair returns to the initial exchange rate. — Amberdata

Investors often claim that you can’t see the full damage of impermanent loss until funds are withdrawn. According to the experts at Amberdata though, this isn’t the case. All data is open and measurable. Anyone can provide an estimate. The real challenge is finding a precise calculation and in analyzing the risk of impermanent loss versus the reward of transaction fees.

The complexity of data sources makes this analysis difficult to account for all investment strategies. But a review of the basics can provide the tools necessary for such a report.

We sat down with Amberdata, a leader in cryptoeconomic data, to better understand impermanent loss (IL) and how to navigate it. This guide will offer context to IL by explaining the technology behind automated market maker (AMM) liquidity pools. It will explain why it happens and why it is difficult to assess. And it will detail the data resources needed to detect clues before loss occurs.

What is impermanent loss?

Impermanent loss happens when the price of a token changes relative to its pair, between the time you deposit it in a liquidity pool and when you withdraw it.

Think of it as primarily an unrealized opportunity cost. It’s not a real loss, because the loss is measured against the value your investment would have been if the tokens were held outside of the liquidity pool. And it’s unrealized because token pairs can return to the same ratio before liquidity is withdrawn.

Where does it occur?

Impermanent loss can occur in any decentralized exchange (DEX) that uses liquidity providers to fund pools segregated by trading pairs. But before we explain the mathematical phenomenon of the loss, we need to explain the purpose behind this new type of exchange and how it works.

⚈Decentralized Exchanges

The purpose

DEXs were created for people to swap different tokens without a trusted third party. Unlike a centralized exchange (CEX), assets remain in your wallet and the exchange never has custody of them. They use two blockchain-based innovations to maintain decentralization: automated market maker algorithms and liquidity pools.

Automated Market Maker Algorithms
An automated market maker algorithm is what sets the exchange rates for specific asset pairs within a DEX.

The traditional CEXs facilitate trades through an order book. Exchange rates are set when buyers create demand and sellers offer supply. The order book matches the price a buyer is willing to pay with the price a seller is willing to accept.

In contrast to setting prices to match buy and sell orders, AMM algorithms are programmed to automatically adjust exchange rates to keep the supply of paired tokens balanced within a pool.

Liquidity Pools

Liquidity pools are smart contract enforced deposits of two tokens needed to enable swaps on a DEX. These pairs are usually set at a 50/50 ratio (but there are also uneven liquidity pools).

How they work

Imagine that you are a brand new exchange looking to open a single pool for BTC and ETH. Before anyone is able to swap BTC for ETH or vice versa, you need to attract liquidity providers to the pool.

The liquidity provider

Exchanges do this by first charging a fee for every swap and then sharing those fees as rewards with all liquidity providers in the pool. For example, if you provide 1% of the liquidity in a pool, you’ll receive 1% of the fees for that pool. Understanding the fee structure is critical to assessing the risk vs reward of adding liquidity. Because ultimately, the rewards from fees could more than offset the risk of impermanent loss.

In the ETH/BTC pool, a liquidity provider would need to include both tokens in their deposit. Most exchanges require a 1:1 ratio. So if a liquidity provider deposited 2 BTC and 1 BTC = 5 ETH, then you would need to match your BTC with 10 ETH. Once funds are deposited, you are given LP tokens as a representation of your percentage of the combined value of both tokens in the pool. LP tokens earn rewards from transaction fees and can be used to farm yield outside of the protocol.

The trader

Now that you have attracted enough liquidity providers, traders can start swapping tokens. But unlike CEXs, traders can’t toggle between their preferred token or currency in a single pool. Instead, they are required to swap one token for the other. So everytime BTC is withdrawn, the equivalent in exchange rate value is added in ETH — and vice versa.

How AMMs price tokens and balance the pool

At a pool’s onset, AMMs use market rates to set prices and an equal balance in value between the supply of both tokens. So if 1 BTC = 5 ETH, total supply in the pool will reflect that ratio. As users swap tokens, the AMM automatically adjusts prices in order to keep a balanced ratio.

For example, say that there was initially 100 BTC and 500 ETH in the pool. The current price of BTC would therefore be 5 ETH. If you were to take 1 BTC for 5 ETH, the total supply would be 99 BTC and 505 ETH. This would change the price of BTC from 5 ETH to about 5.1 ETH.

But say market-wide, the price of BTC is still 5 ETH. Arbitrage traders would then take that opportunity to buy BTC at a discount and sell it for ETH in the liquidity pool. This arbitrage would continue until the price falls back to market rates.

What causes impermanent loss?
Unequal price changes
The ultimate cause of impermanent loss is unequal price changes. Though, it is important to remember that your return is calculated after collecting fees. So even if unequal price fluctuations change the ratio of tokens in a pool, it may not be considered a complete loss if rewards make up the difference.

For example, let’s say an ETH/BTC pool is programmed to keep the value of both baskets set at a 1:1 ratio. Meaning, the value of all BTC should be the same as all ETH. At the time of your deposit, 1 BTC equals 10 ETH across most other exchanges, so you deposit 4 BTC and 40 ETH.

At the time of depositing the tokens, the size of the pool was 20 BTC and 200 ETH, so your total share of liquidity is 20%.

A month later, ETH doubled in value while BTC’s price stayed the same. But the value of both token baskets in the pool don’t yet reflect the ETH market-wide price of .2 BTC. So arbitrage traders rush in to buy ETH at the discount until the pool ratio and token prices match the market rate.

So once the pool supply reaches 20 BTC and 100 ETH, your 20% deposit will be worth 4 BTC and 20 ETH. That is a 20 ETH price difference from the initial 40 ETH deposit, resulting in an impermanent loss of 20 ETH. But it just so happened that transaction fees were extraordinarily high, providing an additional 10 ETH to your share of the pool. In this case, the loss on your return would only be 10 ETH at market value. It is impermanent because the supply of tokens in the pool can return to a 1 BTC to 10 ETH ratio in the future. The loss becomes permanent once funds are withdrawn from the pool. But if a liquidity provider gains enough exposure, rewards from transaction fees can potentially make up for the impermanent loss.

Is impermanent loss actually difficult to spot?
The reason many find it difficult to spot impermanent loss isn’t because it is an inherent mystery – it is a calculable math problem. The team at Amberdata explained that due to its complexity, most resources only provide estimates.

Say that you use your LP tokens in a yield farming endeavor that generates rewards on another protocol. Estimates on the exchange can’t account for those rewards. So even if it is showing impermanent loss, it could be that your yield farming endeavor makes back the loss.

A full assessment requires multiple data points, but if you have a clear view of what’s needed, that calculation can be precise and provide actionable investing data.

Plus, IL is different for everyone because portfolios have a different mix of tokens pairs. People also don’t deposit and withdraw at the same times or prices.

To calculate PnL for a liquidity position, you need data on:

⚈Each token’s price at deposit
⚈The amount of each token deposited
⚈Date of deposit
⚈Rate of reward for the liquidity pool
⚈Estimated price of each token at withdrawal
⚈Date of withdrawal
⚈LP token yield farming strategies

Because there are so many variables in calculating the difference between projected gains from holding tokens versus LP fees, many struggle to make a useful conclusion about whether to enter or exit a liquidity pool.

As an added complication, the risk and reward is different for every token pair depending on each one’s volatility. The more diverse the portfolio, the more difficult this becomes.

How to calculate impermanent loss

There are detailed mathematical explanations for how to calculate IL, but in brief, a formula can be used. IL increases the more an asset’s price changes relative to its pair. This is plotted on a graph.

In this very simplified example, you can see that IL happens whether prices go up or down. But the loss is much greater as a token’s price goes down. This causes many liquidity providers to look for token pairs that are likely to appreciate at a similar rate over time.

Can you avoid impermanent loss?

Since impermanent loss is triggered by unequal prices changes, the best way to avoid it is by avoiding volatile token pairs. But Amberdata stresses that there are always a wide array of investment choices in a cost-benefit analysis. For example, simply avoiding IL may not make sense when you measure a pool’s IL costs vs transaction fee rewards. The most informed decision evaluates the potential return in relation to other pools and opportunities. This comprehensive approach helps the liquidity provider find alpha.

In our conversation, Amberdata said that they offer their clients comprehensive insights across decentralized finance, and can quantify historical performance in context to other liquidity pools and investment strategies. They provide the data needed for a full risk/reward assessment that ultimately informs liquidity providers in their search for alpha.

One of the most useful tools for providing liquidity is Amberdata’s impermanent loss endpoint. With it, liquidity providers can get the exact data needed to evaluate IL risk for token pairs in specific liquidity pools on different DEXs.

Why comprehensive data is important

Amberdata said that their endpoint tools don’t take shortcuts when it comes to calculating impermanent loss. Their application collects liquidity pool data from across exchanges and tracks activity to get accurate, customized calculations.

For example, many IL calculations do not account for the mints and burns that a liquidity provider may make in a single day. Minting refers to the LP tokens that are created when funds are deposited. Those tokens are then burned when funds are withdrawn. Liquidity providers will often try to time minting and burning to avoid volatile price swings in a pool. If their IL estimate is only a 24 hour snapshot of what impermanent loss would be from the start to the close of the day, then they will not be able to measure the impact of their liquidity positions. Amberdata takes those intraday mints and burns into consideration when calculating IL.

While the precision of an IL calculation is critical, it doesn’t provide the full story. Even if a liquidity provider is able to avoid IL through savvy burning and minting practices, it doesn’t mean that they maximized return.

Effective back-testing of liquidity provider strategies requires comprehensive data points that detail the potential transaction fee rewards when an LP is in and out of a position. Amberdata said that they built their services so that liquidity providers could use this comprehensive approach to put their best strategies forward.

https://blockworks.co/the-investors-guide-to-navigating-impermanent-loss/

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🧬VINDICATED! The Epstein Files Connect Gates, Pandemics & Censorship to a Globalist Blueprint for a Biosecurity State🧬

Every warning. Every documentary. Every article. Every post that got us banned. All of it was true. Now what? What can we do? Read on, share this Substack, help us save lives! The Light is shining! ✨

Well, well, well… look what the cat dragged in.

Actually, scratch that. Look what the Department of Justice finally dragged out of Jeffrey Epstein’s email inbox and dumped on the world’s doorstep like a rotting corpse nobody wanted to claim. Yep, that’s right. The Epstein files. It’s hilarious how the “Democratic hoax” and “fantasy” client list we were all told didn’t exist suddenly became a very real, very unsealed document.

For years—years—they called us conspiracy theorists. They slapped “misinformation” labels on our posts faster than Pfizer could print liability waivers. They kicked us off platforms, lied about us in the media, and shadow-banned our reach. Meanwhile, the real conspiracy—the one typed out in black-and-white emails between billionaires, bankers, and a convicted pedophile—was sitting in a government vault, waiting to prove us right.

And now? Now the receipts are public.

The release of Jeffrey Epstein’s files has done far more than expose a network of elite pedophilia and blackmail—it has vindicated truth-tellers like us and countless others who were smeared, censored, de-platformed, and persecuted for warning about the sinister agendas of the globalist elite. The documents reveal shocking connections between Epstein, Bill Gates, pandemic planning, and the systematic suppression of anyone who dared to connect the dots.

We weren’t crazy. We were just early. And they hated us for it.

Epstein, Gates, and the Pandemic “Business Model” They Built Together

One of the most damning revelations from Epstein’s files is his partnership with Bill Gates. Forget the carefully crafted PR spin about “regretting” those meetings. These weren’t casual dinners. These were planning sessions.

Back in 2015, Gates and Epstein exchanged emails about “preparing for pandemics” and strategies to “involve the WHO.” Gates wrote: I hope we can pull this off.”

How’s that for a chill down your spine?

This eerily foreshadowed the 2019 Event 201 simulation—a pandemic exercise hosted by the Gates Foundation, Johns Hopkins, and the World Economic Forum that just happened to model a global coronavirus outbreak… just months before COVID-19 ”mysteriously” emerged in Wuhan. Funny how that works, isn’t it?

But let’s rewind even further, to the real blueprint—the financial architecture that made the pandemic response not just possible, but profitable.

The story crystallizes in a chilling 2011 email exchangeJuliet Pullis, a JPMorgan executive under then-chairman Jes Staley, emailed Jeffrey Epstein with a list of detailed questions. The source? “The JPM team that is putting together some ideas for Gates.

The questions were precise: What are the objectives? Is anonymity key? Who directs the investments and grants? This wasn’t JPMorgan consulting an expert; it was a trillion-dollar bank asking a convicted felon to architect a billion-dollar philanthropic fund for Bill Gates.

This wasn’t JPMorgan consulting a philanthropic expert. This was a trillion-dollar bank asking a convicted felon to architect a billion-dollar philanthropic fund for one of the richest men on Earth. Let that marinate for a moment.

Epstein’s reply was fluent and commanding. He described a donor-advised fund with a “stellar board” and ties to the Gates-Buffett “Giving Pledge.” He noted the billions already pledged and identified the gap: “They all have a tax advisor, but have no real clue on how to give it away.” His solution? JPM would be an integral part. Not advisor… operator, compliance. Staley’s response: We need to talk.

By July 2011, the plan evolved. In an email to Staley, copying Boris Nikolic (Gates’ chief science advisor), Epstein laid out the core pitch: A silo based proposal that will get Bill more money for vaccines.”

Not “more research for pandemics.” Not “better public health infrastructure.” More money for vaccines.” This is the unambiguous language of capital formation, not charity. It reveals the structure’s intended output planning reached the highest levels.

In August 2011, Mary Erdoes, CEO of JPMorgan’s $2+ trillion Asset & Wealth Management division, emailed Epstein (while on vacation) with additional operational questions.

Epstein’s reply was breathtaking in scope:

  • Scale: “Billions of dollars” in two years, “tens of billions by year 4.”

  • Structure: Donors choose from “silos” like mutual funds.

  • The Kicker: However, we should be ready with an offshore arm — especially for vaccines.”

An offshore arm. For vaccines. For a charitable vehicle. Let that sink in.

So, by the time the world was panicking in March 2020, the financial machinery was already built. The investment vehicles, the donor-advised funds, the reinsurance products at places like Swiss Re, and even the simulation playbooks were dusted off and ready to go.

The pandemic wasn’t an interruption to their business—it was the Grand Opening.

Epstein’s role extended far beyond trafficking; he was a facilitator and blackmail operative for the global elite. The same forces that orchestrated the COVID-19 power grab—the mask mandates, lockdowns, censorship, and coercive mRNA push—are the ones who silenced critics like us.

Gates, despite his documented ties to Epstein (multiple flights on the “Lolita Express” after Epstein’s 2008 conviction), walks freely. He’s on TV. He’s advising governments. He’s still funding “global health initiatives” and pushing digital IDs, vaccine passports, and climate lockdowns.

Meanwhile, people like our friend, Joby Weeks, are under house arrest without charges, and voices like ours were de-platformed, demonetized, and destroyed for saying this very thing.

We told you. You knew it in your gut. Now you have the emails.

Censorship: The Elite’s “Misinformation” Label to Cover Their Crimes

The Epstein files expose not just criminal behavior, but the playbook for the systematic suppression of truth. While Epstein’s powerful friends were being protected by the FBI, the DOJ, and the media, platforms like Facebook (Meta), YouTube (Google), and Twitter went to war against anyone talking about it.

Think about the sheer audacity.

We were banned from social media for calling COVID-19 a “fake pandemic” and exposing the vaccine injury data that’s now undeniable.

Below is a screenshot of the first Facebook post that was taken down and then used as “Exhibit A” in their “reports” about how bad we were, naming us the 3rd most dangerous people on earth after Dr Joseph Mercola and Bobby Kennedy in the digital hit list they called the “Disinformation Dozen.” They attacked us, lied about us, and pressured the media, social media, and population at large to do the same: attack, threaten, and cast us out.

We were labeled “dangerous” for sharing emails, documents, and research that the DOJ and the CDC have now confirmed.

It was never about “safety.” It was about narrative control.

The same institutions that turned a blind eye to Epstein’s crimes for decades—the same ones that let him “commit suicide” in a maximum-security prison with cameras conveniently malfunctioning—suddenly became the ruthless hall monitors of “acceptable discourse,” ensuring only their approved stories could be told.

Big Tech, Big Media, and Big Government are all part of the same protection racket. They shielded Epstein’s client list, and now they shield the architects of the pandemic debacle. Independent journalists, researchers, and health advocates like us, who connected these dots, were systematically de-platformed, demonetized, and destroyed.

Why? Because we were right, and that was the greatest threat of all.

When you’re over the target, that’s when the flak gets heaviest. And brothers and sisters, we were getting shelled.

They Lied About Us While Protecting the Real Criminals

Let’s be crystal clear about what happened here.

We have spent decades exposing the cancer industry, Big Pharma’s corruption, and the suppression of natural health solutions. We produced The Truth About Cancer docu-series, reaching millions worldwide. We warned about vaccine injuries, censorship, and the coming medical tyranny years before COVID-19.

And what did they do? They called us “Conspiracy Theorists,” “Anti-Vaxxers,” and “Killers.” Dangerous.

They said we were killing people with “misinformation.”

Facebook banned us. YouTube deleted our videos. Legacy media ran hit pieces. PayPal froze our accounts.

All while Bill Gates—a man with documented ties to Jeffrey Epstein, who flew on his plane multiple times after Epstein’s conviction, who got STDs from Russian girls Epstein provided for him for which Gates asked Epstein’s help getting him antibiotics to slip secretly to his then wife, Melinda, so that she would not know about his inexcusable and perverted escapades—yes, THAT Bill Gates—was at the same time, being platformed on every major news network as the world’s health oracle.

All while Anthony Fauci—who funded gain-of-function research in Wuhan through Peter Daszak and EcoHealth Alliance, who lied under oath to Congress, who flip-flopped on masks, lockdowns, and vaccines—was treated like a saint. Time Magazine’s “Guardian of the Year.”

All while Pfizer—a company with a $2.3 billion criminal fine for fraudulent marketing, bribery, and kickbacks—was given blanket immunity from liability and billions in taxpayer dollars to produce a vaccine in record time with no long-term safety data.

Were we the dangerous ones?

No.

We were the truthful ones. And that made us the enemy.

The Weaponized Institutions: From Epstein’s Blackmail to Your Digital ID

Epstein’s operation was never just about blackmail for perversion; it was blackmail for control. The files show his cozy ties to intelligence agencies (Mossad, CIA), financial giants like JPMorgan and Deutsche Bank, and political leaders across the globe.

This is the same cabal now pushing:

  • The Great Reset

  • Digital IDs

  • Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs)

  • 15-minute cities

  • Carbon credit social scoring

  • Vaccine passports

Let’s connect the dots they desperately don’t want you to see:

Financial Control:

JPMorgan banked Epstein for years despite clear red flags—over $1 billion in suspicious transactions flagged internally and ignored. They knew. They didn’t care. They paid a $290 million fine and moved on.

Now, banks like Bank of America, Chase, and PayPal de-bank conservatives, truckers, health freedom advocates, and anyone who questions the narrative. Canadian truckers. Gun shops. Crypto entrepreneurs. The goal is the same: punish dissent and control economic life.

CBDCs are the endgame—a digital leash on every citizen. Programmable money that can be turned off, restricted, or expired. Social credit by another name.

Medical Tyranny:

The FDA, CDC, and WHO—utterly captured by Big Pharma—lied about:

  • COVID origins (Wuhan lab leak dismissed as conspiracy theory)

  • Vaccine efficacy (”95% effective” turned into “you need boosters forever”)

  • Natural immunity (ignored despite being superior)

  • Early treatments (ivermectin, hydroxychloroquine, vitamin D censored and mocked)

They attacked natural health advocates just as they’ve done for decades with cancer cures, detox protocols, and anything that threatens Big Pharma profits. They are not health agencies; they are profit-enforcement arms dressed in lab coats.

Political Corruption:

Epstein’s blackmail ensured elite immunity. His client list includes presidents, princes, CEOs, scientists, and media moguls.

Meanwhile, true dissidents—Julian Assange (tortured in prison for journalism), Edward Snowden (exiled for exposing mass surveillance), and journalists like us—face persecution, imprisonment, debanking, slanderous hit pieces, and/or constant character assassination.

Two systems of justice: one for them, one for you. One for Epstein’s friends, one for truth-tellers.

The Way Forward: They’re Exposed. Now It’s Time to Build.

The Epstein files are more than proof; they are a declaration that the system is rotten to its core. But here’s the beautiful part: they vindicate us completely.

Every warning. Every documentary. Every article. Every post that got us banned. All of it was true.

The globalists’ grip is weakening. The truth—the real, ugly, documented truth—is erupting from the very files they tried to hide. They labeled us liars, but the emails show they were the architects. They silenced us, they censored us, but that only made our voices more necessary.

Epstein did not kill himself. COVID-19 was not natural. The vaccines were not safe or effective. The censorship was not about protecting you—it was about protecting them.

And now? Now it’s time to use this vindication as fuel. Not for revenge, but for revolution. A revolution of truth, health, freedom, and justice.

They tried to bury us. They didn’t know we were seeds.

The Epstein files are a smoking gun. A paper trail. A confession written in emails, financial structures, and offshore accounts.

They prove what we’ve been saying all along:

  • The system is rigged.

  • The elites are criminals.

  • The pandemic was planned.

  • The censorship was coordinated.

And we were right. 👍

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💳Citi’s Strategy to Dominate Institutional Payments💳

Citi's Institutional Payments Strategy

Citi’s Strategy to Dominate Institutional Payments is built on a foundation of technological innovation, strategic simplification, and a laser focus on institutional clients. The bank has transitioned from a fragmented global retail bank to a streamlined provider of high-margin institutional services, with its Treasury and Trade Solutions (TTS) and Securities Services segments now considered its "crown jewel." This shift, led by CEO Jane Fraser, involved exiting 14 international consumer markets and slashing decades of "tech debt" through a multi-billion-dollar partnership with **Google Cloud**, creating a modern, unified data and cloud infrastructure.

At the core of Citi’s dominance in institutional payments is Citi Token Services, a blockchain-powered platform launched in September 2023. This service converts client deposits into digital tokens, enabling 24/7, real-time cross-border payments, automated trade finance, and just-in-time liquidity management. By using private blockchain technology managed entirely by Citi, clients avoid the need to host their own nodes. The solution has been successfully piloted with Maersk and a canal authority, demonstrating how smart contracts can reduce transaction times from days to minutes—mirroring the functions of traditional bank guarantees and letters of credit.

Citi is further strengthening its position through strategic partnerships, such as its collaboration with Coinbase to expand digital asset payment solutions for institutional clients, enabling seamless fiat-to-crypto transitions. The bank is also leveraging generative AI to automate regulatory compliance, improve cash forecasting by 50%, and reduce operational case times by 90%, directly enhancing the efficiency and reliability of its payment services.

With a global network spanning 95 countries and a focus on real-time, transparent, and programmable financial services, Citi is redefining the institutional payments landscape. Its strategy—centered on infrastructure modernization, digital asset innovation, and client-centric automation—positions it to capture market share from both traditional banks and fintechs, particularly as cross-border instant payments become the norm by 2028.

As blockchain infrastructure inches closer to the core of global finance, a consequential debate is taking shape inside banks and among institutional investors.

What form of digital money will ultimately dominate on-chain settlement?

Stablecoins have so far captured the spotlight, buoyed by rapid adoption and growing regulatory attention. But a different shift is underway inside the banking sector, where executives are increasingly confident that tokenized bank deposits, and not privately issued stablecoins, could become the preferred on-chain dollar for institutional and wholesale use.

“We don’t start with the asset,” Biswarup Chatterjee, global head of partnerships and innovation, Citi Services at Citi, told PYMNTS. “We typically start with our client need, and then we look at the pros and cons of each type of asset or financing instrument.”

For institutional money, innovation can often begin with constraint.

“When you’re dealing with money as a financial institution, you’re acting in a fiduciary capacity,” Chatterjee said, framing why safety and soundness dominate early conversations with clients.

From that perspective, the critical questions around new digital instruments are regulatory and operational before they are technological. Are these assets well-regulated? Do they operate within clearly defined legal frameworks? Can they be governed with the same rigor as traditional deposits or securities?

For institutions that manage systemic liquidity, and their clients, those questions are becoming non-negotiable. Within that context, tokenized deposits are what is emerging as a natural evolution of existing bank money.

“Within the bank’s network, tokenized deposits are an efficient way for our clients to be able to get that 24/7, always-on availability,” Chatterjee said.

The Race to Define the On-Chain Dollar for Institutional Use

By anchoring decisions in client economics and workflows, banks are positioning themselves less as promoters of specific technologies and more as integrators tasked with assembling the right mix of tools for each use case. Institutional clients are not simply looking for digital replicas of existing money; they are grappling with the friction of moving funds across use cases and jurisdictions.

“There’s this constant need to transform money across its various forms and shapes,” Chatterjee said, adding that payments, working capital and financing increasingly overlap, and inefficiencies emerge when money cannot move fluidly between those roles.

By representing deposits on distributed ledgers, banks can offer real-time movement of money across accounts, entities and geographies without leaving the regulated perimeter. For enterprises and institutions, this promises faster settlement, improved liquidity management and reduced operational friction, all without introducing new balance sheet or counterparty risks.

In this sense, tokenized deposits may turn out to be less disruptive than they appear. They modernize the plumbing of banking rather than bypassing it, extending familiar money into programmable environments.

Regulation, Interoperability and the Velocity of Money

The moment money exits a bank’s direct network, however, the strengths of tokenized deposits begin to fade. Cross-border payments, underbanked regions and counterparties outside major financial institutions can expose gaps in reach and efficiency when it comes to tokenized deposits.

This is where Chatterjee said he sees a role for stablecoins, not as competitors to banks, but as connective tissue.

“When money leaves the bank’s network and goes out into the external ecosystem, that’s where we see the role of stablecoins coming in,” he said, assuming they operate in a “very safe and sound and regulated manner.”

The result is likely to represent not a binary choice but a continuum. Just as checks, wires, cash and instant payments coexist today, digital money is likely to fragment into specialized forms optimized for different environments.

At the heart of the impact financial blockchain is having on digital money’s evolution lies a deceptively simple question: What makes money “good”?

For Chatterjee, the answer hinges on universal acceptance and trust.

“What makes a currency strong … has a lot to do with universal acceptance,” he said.

Assets that cannot be readily transferred or accepted risk becoming stranded, unable to circulate productively; while trust is fundamental to the value and stability of money, no matter its form. That logic applies equally to tokenized deposits and stablecoins. Without trust and transferability, neither is likely to function as a true institutional settlement asset.

Despite the focus on tokens and technology, Chatterjee was clear about where long-term value resides. It is not in the token itself, but in service.

“Client service and the client experience is what is going to drive the winning proposition,” he said.

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New Allegations Link Former National Intelligence Leaders Clapper and O’Sullivan to UFO Shoot-Down and Retrieval Program

Written by Christopher Sharp - 24 January 2026

Multiple sources have told Liberation Times that, during the Obama administration, senior intelligence figures James Clapper and Stephanie O’Sullivan oversaw a program relating to Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAP) within the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. 

The sources allege the effort involved the shootdown and recovery of exotic vehicles thought to be of non-human origin.

Three separate sources told Liberation Times that Clapper allegedly ran the program alongside O’Sullivan, dating back to his tenure as Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence from 2007 to 2010

During that period, O’Sullivan led the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology before being promoted in 2009 to become the agency’s third-most senior officer.

One source alleged to Liberation Times that Clapper and O’Sullivan oversaw a program codenamed ‘Golden Domes,’ which the source claimed was jointly run by the CIA and the United States Air Force (USAF), where Clapper previously served.

The source further alleged that the program could detect and track UAP even when ‘cloaked’ and as they physically manifested.

The same source claimed the program employed a mix of electronic and laser-based capabilities intended to bring down what the source described as ‘exotic non-human vehicles.’

Sources were unable to offer Liberation Times a clear explanation for why the U.S. government would choose to engage UAP, including whether any such actions were taken routinely, in specific circumstances, or in relation to any potential understandings or rules of engagement involving other purported non-human factions.

In the recently released documentary ‘The Age of Disclosure’, James Clapper alleged that a secretive USAF program had been actively monitoring UAP, particularly over the highly classified Area 51 facility in Nevada - an epicentre of cutting-edge military development and testing.

Clapper, a former Chief of USAF Intelligence, stated:

“When I served in the Air Force, there was an active program to track anomalous activities that we couldn’t otherwise explain - many of them connected with ranges out west, notably Area 51.”

In a recent interview with journalist Megyn Kelly, former intelligence official, USAF veteran, and UAP whistleblower David Grusch claimed that James Clapper managed a UAP program, stating:

“I'm a little bit disappointed as a fellow Air Force officer…. That's all he said in the documentary: that there was a program he was aware of. 

 

“In fact, without being inappropriate, I will say that General Clapper was well aware of the crash retrieval issue, managed the crash retrieval issue, and, when he was a DNI [Director of National Intelligence], USDI [Undersecretary of Defense for Intelligence and Security], DIA [Defense Intelligence Agency], he placed people in critical roles to manage this issue, both publicly - and I'll just say not publicly as well - and I'll allow the audience to distill what I'm saying at the, at the risk of being inappropriate or going too far with my discussion. 

 

“So General Clapper, Stephanie O’Sullivan, other folks in the IC [Intelligence Community] that are well aware of this issue, that were in rooms discussing this issue, I ask you to be greater leaders on this. I should not be the only former military officer and intelligence official that is being completely candid with the information that they were exposed to.”

Grusch’s lawyer, Charles McCullough III served as the Intelligence Community Inspector General, reporting directly to then–Director of National Intelligence James Clapper.

In that role, according to his biography, McCullough ‘oversaw intelligence officers responsible for audits, inspections, and investigations. Furthermore, he was responsible for inquiries involving the Office of the Director of National Intelligence as well as the entire Intelligence Community.’

                            Above: Charles McCullough, III and James Clapper

Grusch, in that same interview, also alleged that former Vice President Dick Cheney, who has since died, was the “closest person” to a “mob boss,” exerting “central leadership” over UAP-related activities.

Notably, Dick Cheney’s wife, Lynne Cheney, served on Lockheed Corporation’s board of directors from 1994 to 2001.

Against that backdrop, in written testimony to Congress, Lue Elizondo, the former director of the Pentagon’s Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program, claimed that Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland was among the sites prepared in connection with an alleged transfer of UAP materials to Bigelow Aerospace from Lockheed Martin - an organisation long accused of involvement in an alleged UAP reverse-engineering program.

In a 2013 Fox News interview, Dick Cheney said he first met James Clapper around 25 years earlier, when Clapper was serving as a USAF intelligence officer in Korea.

James Clapper served as the fourth Director of National Intelligence under President Obama from August 2010 to January 2017. Before that, he was Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence from 2007 to 2010 under President George W. Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney.

Clapper also previously served as Director of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency

In his book Facts and Fears, he recounts how he was assigned as the USAF senior resident officer at the National Security Agency (NSA) to represent Air Force interests. In February 1980, then-NSA Director Vice Admiral Bobby Inman presided over Clapper’s promotion to colonel, as he assumed responsibility for all Air Force personnel stationed at the NSA.

Clapper writes in his book that he served as an intermediary for Vice Admiral Bobby Inman, whom he describes as “an icon and a legend” and who has also been alleged to be a UAP gatekeeper.

Inman was clearly aware of the link between O’Sullivan’s former office and UAP-related matters. In a now-public phone call with NASA engineer Bob Oechsler, Inman said that Everett Hineman, then Deputy Director of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology, would be “the best person” to ask whether any recovered UAP vehicles might be made available for technological research outside military channels.

Notably, former NSA administrator Mike Rogers has recalled in an interview that, while serving as Director of National Intelligence, Clapper unexpectedly ordered him and his team to review the NSA’s files and provide everything relating to UFOs.

Upon being nominated as Director of National Intelligence by President Obama in 2010, Clapper was described as having developed close ties to the intelligence community during his long career and is particularly close to senior managers at the CIA.

In 2011, Clapper recommended that President Obama nominate Stephanie O’Sullivan as Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence (PDDNI). 

Before her nomination, O’Sullivan served as the CIA’s Associate Deputy Director from December 2009 to February 2011, working alongside the Director and Deputy Director to provide overall leadership of the agency, with a particular focus on day-to-day management. 

                                                Above: Stephanie O’Sullivan

Before that, she served as the CIA’s Deputy Director of Science and Technology for 4 years. According to Liberation Times sources, the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology has and continues to be involved in coordinating UAP retrieval missions and safeguarding technologies derived from UAP-related research carried out by the Department of War (DoW) and its contractors.

Based on the best available open source information, previous Deputy Directors of the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology include:

  • Albert Wheelon 1963-1966

  • Carl Duckett 1966-1967

  • Leslie Dirks 1967-1982

  • R. Evan Hineman 1982-1989

  • James Hirsch 1989-1995

  • Ruth David 1995-1998

  • Gary Smith 1999-1999

  • Joanne Isham 1999-2001

  • Donald Kerr 2001-2005

  • Stephanie O’Sullivan 2005-2009

  • Glenn Gaffney 2009-2015

  • Dawn Meyerriecks 2015-2021

  • Todd Lowery 2021-present

In his book, ‘Facts and Fears’, Clapper writes that he knew O’Sullivan by reputation as a brilliant technical engineer, and that then-CIA Director Leon Panetta put her forward to him as his deputy - someone who could help cover his blind spots when CIA-related issues arose

Clapper describes the day of O’Sullivan’s confirmation to PDDNI - a title O’Sullivan jokingly referred to as ‘P-Diddy’ - as ‘an extremely happy one’. Their working relationship within the ODNI was extremely close, and Clapper has written that he learned to adopt the line “Stephanie speaks for me, even when we haven’t spoken.”

O’Sullivan entered the intelligence world after responding to a cryptic newspaper classified advert seeking an “ocean engineer”. That move led her to TRW, the defense contractor absorbed into Northrop Grumman, and later the Office of Naval Intelligence. Liberation Times sources allege that Northrop Grumman’s Tejon Ranch Radar Cross Section Facility in southern California is a site where UAPs are routinely retrieved.

Since her retirement from government in 2017, O’Sullivan now serves as a member of the Board of Trustees of the Aerospace Corporation and is on the Board of Directors of Battelle Memorial Institute. 

Battelle and The Aerospace Corporation have both been referenced publicly in connection with UAP programs

Sources also note that O’Sullivan sits on the board of HRL Laboratories, formerly Hughes Research Laboratories, part of the wider Hughes corporate legacy that is closely associated with the Hughes Glomar Explorer, the vessel later linked to the CIA’s effort to recover a sunken Soviet submarine.

Sources told Liberation Times that Stephanie O’Sullivan has been questioned by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence about her alleged role in a UAP program

The sources further allege that she misled committee members, including then Senator Marco Rubio, now Secretary of State, by nervously claiming that she had no involvement.

Allegations of kinetic engagement have surfaced in other contexts. 

In written testimony submitted to Congress, journalist George Knapp relayed what he said he was told by figures linked to a former Russian Ministry of Defense UAP program: that Russian fighter aircraft were dispatched to intercept UAP on numerous occasions and, in a small number of cases, were ordered to fire. 

Knapp wrote that after several alleged incidents in which aircraft subsequently crashed, a standing order was issued instructing pilots to disengage and ‘leave the UFOs alone because, quote, “they could have incredible capacities for retaliation.”’ 

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